Learning Resources
The statements inside your source files are generally executed from top to bottom, in the order that they appear. Control flow statements, however, break up the flow of execution by employing decision making, looping, and branching, enabling your program to conditionally execute particular blocks of code. This section describes the decision-making statements (if-then, if-then-else, switch), the looping statements (for, while, do-while), and the branching statements (break, continue, return) supported by the Java programming language.
if-thenStatementThe if-thenstatement is the most basic of all the control flow statements. It tells your program to execute a certain section of code only if a particular test evaluates to true. For example, the Bicycleclass could allow the brakes to decrease the bicycle's speed only if the bicycle is already in motion. One possible implementation of the applyBrakesmethod could be as follows:
void applyBrakes() {
// the "if" clause: bicycle must be moving
if (isMoving){
// the "then" clause: decrease current speed
currentSpeed--;
}
}
If this test evaluates to false(meaning that the bicycle is not in motion), control jumps to the end of the if-thenstatement.
In addition, the opening and closing braces are optional, provided that the "then" clause contains only one statement:
void applyBrakes() {
// same as above, but without braces
if (isMoving)
currentSpeed--;
}
Deciding when to omit the braces is a matter of personal taste. Omitting them can make the code more brittle. If a second statement is later added to the "then" clause, a common mistake would be forgetting to add the newly required braces. The compiler cannot catch this sort of error; you'll just get the wrong results.
if-then-elseStatementThe if-then-elsestatement provides a secondary path of execution when an "if" clause evaluates to false. You could use an if-then-elsestatement in the applyBrakesmethod to take some action if the brakes are applied when the bicycle is not in motion. In this case, the action is to simply print an error message stating that the bicycle has already stopped.
void applyBrakes() {
if (isMoving) {
currentSpeed--;
} else {
System.err.println("The bicycle has " + "already stopped!");
}
}
The following program, IfElseDemo, assigns a grade based on the value of a test score: an A for a score of 90% or above, a B for a score of 80% or above, and so on.
class IfElseDemo {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int testscore = 76;
char grade;
if (testscore >= 90) {
grade = 'A';
} else if (testscore >= 80) {
grade = 'B';
} else if (testscore >= 70) {
grade = 'C';
} else if (testscore >= 60) {
grade = 'D';
} else {
grade = 'F';
}
System.out.println("Grade = " + grade);
}
}
The output from the program is:
Grade = C
You may have noticed that the value of testscorecan satisfy more than one expression in the compound statement: 76 >= 70and 76 >= 60. However, once a condition is satisfied, the appropriate statements are executed (grade = 'C';)and the remaining conditions are not evaluated.
Unlike if-thenand if-then-elsestatements, the switchstatement can have a number of possible execution paths. A switchworks with the byte, short, char, and intprimitive data types. It also works with enumerated types (discussed in Enum Types), the String class, and a few special classes that wrap certain primitive types: Character, Byte, Short, and Integer (discussed in Numbers and Strings).
The following code example, SwitchDemo, declares an intnamed monthwhose value represents a month. The code displays the name of the month, based on the value of month, using the switchstatement.
public class SwitchDemo {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int month = 8;
String monthString;
switch (month) {
case 1: monthString = "January";
break;
case 2: monthString = "February";
break;
case 3: monthString = "March";
break;
case 4: monthString = "April";
break;
case 5: monthString = "May";
break;
case 6: monthString = "June";
break;
case 7: monthString = "July";
break;
case 8: monthString = "August";
break;
case 9: monthString = "September";
break;
case 10: monthString = "October";
break;
case 11: monthString = "November";
break;
case 12: monthString = "December";
break;
default: monthString = "Invalid month";
break;
}
System.out.println(monthString);
}
}
In this case, Augustis printed to standard output.
The body of a switchstatement is known as a switch block. A statement in the switchblock can be labeled with one or more caseor defaultlabels. The switchstatement evaluates its expression, then executes all statements that follow the matching caselabel.
You could also display the name of the month with if-then-elsestatements:
int month = 8;
if (month == 1) {
System.out.println("January");
} else if (month == 2) {
System.out.println("February");
}
... // and so on
Deciding whether to use if-then-elsestatements or a switchstatement is based on readability and the expression that the statement is testing. An if-then-elsestatement can test expressions based on ranges of values or conditions, whereas a switchstatement tests expressions based only on a single integer, enumerated value, or Stringobject.
Another point of interest is the breakstatement. Each breakstatement terminates the enclosing switchstatement. Control flow continues with the first statement following the switchblock. The breakstatements are necessary because without them, statements in switchblocks fall through: All statements after the matching caselabel are executed in sequence, regardless of the expression of subsequent caselabels, until a breakstatement is encountered. The program SwitchDemoFallThroughshows statements in a switchblock that fall through. The program displays the month corresponding to the integer monthand the months that follow in the year:
public class SwitchDemoFallThrough {
public static void main(String args[]) {
java.util.ArrayList futureMonths =
new java.util.ArrayList();
int month = 8;
switch (month) {
case 1: futureMonths.add("January");
case 2: futureMonths.add("February");
case 3: futureMonths.add("March");
case 4: futureMonths.add("April");
case 5: futureMonths.add("May");
case 6: futureMonths.add("June");
case 7: futureMonths.add("July");
case 8: futureMonths.add("August");
case 9: futureMonths.add("September");
case 10: futureMonths.add("October");
case 11: futureMonths.add("November");
case 12: futureMonths.add("December");
break;
default: break;
}
if (futureMonths.isEmpty()) {
System.out.println("Invalid month number");
} else {
for (String monthName : futureMonths) {
System.out.println(monthName);
}
}
}
}
This is the output from the code:
August September October November December
Technically, the final breakis not required because flow falls out of the switchstatement. Using a breakis recommended so that modifying the code is easier and less error prone. The defaultsection handles all values that are not explicitly handled by one of the casesections.
The following code example, SwitchDemo2, shows how a statement can have multiple caselabels. The code example calculates the number of days in a particular month:
class SwitchDemo2 {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int month = 2;
int year = 2000;
int numDays = 0;
switch (month) {
case 1: case 3: case 5:
case 7: case 8: case 10:
case 12:
numDays = 31;
break;
case 4: case 6:
case 9: case 11:
numDays = 30;
break;
case 2:
if (((year % 4 == 0) &&
!(year % 100 == 0))
|| (year % 400 == 0))
numDays = 29;
else
numDays = 28;
break;
default:
System.out.println("Invalid month.");
break;
}
System.out.println("Number of Days = "
+ numDays);
}
}
This is the output from the code:
Number of Days = 29
In Java SE 7 and later, you can use a Stringobject in the switchstatement's expression. The following code example, StringSwitchDemo, displays the number of the month based on the value of the Stringnamed month:
public class StringSwitchDemo {
public static int getMonthNumber(String month) {
int monthNumber = 0;
if (month == null) {
return monthNumber;
}
switch (month.toLowerCase()) {
case "january":
monthNumber = 1;
break;
case "february":
monthNumber = 2;
break;
case "march":
monthNumber = 3;
break;
case "april":
monthNumber = 4;
break;
case "may":
monthNumber = 5;
break;
case "june":
monthNumber = 6;
break;
case "july":
monthNumber = 7;
break;
case "august":
monthNumber = 8;
break;
case "september":
monthNumber = 9;
break;
case "october":
monthNumber = 10;
break;
case "november":
monthNumber = 11;
break;
case "december":
monthNumber = 12;
break;
default:
monthNumber = 0;
break;
}
return monthNumber;
}
public static void main(String[] args) {
String month = "August";
int returnedMonthNumber =
StringSwitchDemo.getMonthNumber(month);
if (returnedMonthNumber == 0) {
System.out.println("Invalid month");
} else {
System.out.println(returnedMonthNumber);
}
}
}
The output from this code is 8.
The Stringin the switchexpression is compared with the expressions associated with each caselabel as if the String.equalsmethod were being used. In order for the StringSwitchDemoexample to accept any month regardless of case, monthis converted to lowercase (with the toLowerCasemethod), and all the strings associated with the caselabels are in lowercase.
Note: This example checks if the expression in the switchstatement is null. Ensure that the expression in any switchstatement is not null to prevent a NullPointerExceptionfrom being thrown.
The whilestatement continually executes a block of statements while a particular condition is true. Its syntax can be expressed as:
while (expression) {
statement(s)
}
The whilestatement evaluates expression, which must return a booleanvalue. If the expression evaluates to true, the whilestatement executes the statement(s) in the whileblock. The whilestatement continues testing the expression and executing its block until the expression evaluates to false. Using the whilestatement to print the values from 1 through 10 can be accomplished as in the following WhileDemoprogram:
class WhileDemo {
public static void main(String[] args){
int count = 1;
while (count < 11) {
System.out.println("Count is: "
+ count);
count++;
}
}
}
You can implement an infinite loop using the whilestatement as follows:
while (true){
// your code goes here
}
The Java programming language also provides a do-whilestatement, which can be expressed as follows:
do {
statement(s)
} while (expression);
The difference between do-whileand whileis that do-whileevaluates its expression at the bottom of the loop instead of the top. Therefore, the statements within the doblock are always executed at least once, as shown in the following DoWhileDemoprogram:
class DoWhileDemo {
public static void main(String[] args){
int count = 1;
do {
System.out.println("Count is: "
+ count);
count++;
} while (count < 11);
}
}
The forstatement provides a compact way to iterate over a range of values. Programmers often refer to it as the "for loop" because of the way in which it repeatedly loops until a particular condition is satisfied. The general form of the forstatement can be expressed as follows:
for (initialization; termination;
increment) {
statement(s)
}
When using this version of the forstatement, keep in mind that:
false, the loop terminates.The following program, ForDemo, uses the general form of the forstatement to print the numbers 1 through 10 to standard output:
class ForDemo {
public static void main(String[] args){
for(int i=1; i<11; i++){
System.out.println("Count is: "
+ i);
}
}
}
The output of this program is:
Count is: 1 Count is: 2 Count is: 3 Count is: 4 Count is: 5 Count is: 6 Count is: 7 Count is: 8 Count is: 9 Count is: 10
Notice how the code declares a variable within the initialization expression. The scope of this variable extends from its declaration to the end of the block governed by the forstatement, so it can be used in the termination and increment expressions as well. If the variable that controls a forstatement is not needed outside of the loop, it's best to declare the variable in the initialization expression. The names i, j, and kare often used to control forloops; declaring them within the initialization expression limits their life span and reduces errors.
The three expressions of the forloop are optional; an infinite loop can be created as follows:
// infinite loop
for ( ; ; ) {
// your code goes here
}
The forstatement also has another form designed for iteration through Collections and arrays. This form is sometimes referred to as the enhanced for statement, and can be used to make your loops more compact and easy to read. To demonstrate, consider the following array, which holds the numbers 1 through 10:
int[] numbers = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10};
The following program,EnhancedForDemo, uses the enhanced forto loop through the array:
class EnhancedForDemo {
public static void main(String[] args){
int[] numbers =
{1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10};
for (int item : numbers) {
System.out.println("Count is: "
+ item);
}
}
}
In this example, the variable itemholds the current value from the numbers array. The output from this program is the same as before:
Count is: 1 Count is: 2 Count is: 3 Count is: 4 Count is: 5 Count is: 6 Count is: 7 Count is: 8 Count is: 9 Count is: 10
We recommend using this form of the forstatement instead of the general form whenever possible.
breakStatementThe breakstatement has two forms: labeled and unlabeled. You saw the unlabeled form in the previous discussion of the switchstatement. You can also use an unlabeled breakto terminate a for, while, or do-whileloop, as shown in the following BreakDemoprogram:
class BreakDemo {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int[] arrayOfInts =
{ 32, 87, 3, 589,
12, 1076, 2000,
8, 622, 127 };
int searchfor = 12;
int i;
boolean foundIt = false;
for (i = 0; i < arrayOfInts.length; i++) {
if (arrayOfInts[i] == searchfor) {
foundIt = true;
break;
}
}
if (foundIt) {
System.out.println("Found " + searchfor + " at index " + i);
} else {
System.out.println(searchfor + " not in the array");
}
}
}
This program searches for the number 12 in an array. The breakstatement, shown in boldface, terminates the forloop when that value is found. Control flow then transfers to the statement after the forloop. This program's output is:
Found 12 at index 4
An unlabeled breakstatement terminates the innermost switch, for, while, or do-whilestatement, but a labeled breakterminates an outer statement. The following program,BreakWithLabelDemo, is similar to the previous program, but uses nested forloops to search for a value in a two-dimensional array. When the value is found, a labeled breakterminates the outer forloop (labeled "search"):
class BreakWithLabelDemo {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int[][] arrayOfInts = {
{ 32, 87, 3, 589 },
{ 12, 1076, 2000, 8 },
{ 622, 127, 77, 955 }
};
int searchfor = 12;
int i;
int j = 0;
boolean foundIt = false;
search:
for (i = 0; i < arrayOfInts.length; i++) {
for (j = 0; j < arrayOfInts[i].length;
j++) {
if (arrayOfInts[i][j] == searchfor) {
foundIt = true;
break search;
}
}
}
if (foundIt) {
System.out.println("Found " + searchfor +
" at " + i + ", " + j);
} else {
System.out.println(searchfor +
" not in the array");
}
}
}
This is the output of the program.
Found 12 at 1, 0
The breakstatement terminates the labeled statement; it does not transfer the flow of control to the label. Control flow is transferred to the statement immediately following the labeled (terminated) statement.
continueStatementThe continuestatement skips the current iteration of a for, while, or do-whileloop. The unlabeled form skips to the end of the innermost loop's body and evaluates the booleanexpression that controls the loop. The following program, ContinueDemo, steps through a String, counting the occurences of the letter "p". If the current character is not a p, the continuestatement skips the rest of the loop and proceeds to the next character. If it is a "p", the program increments the letter count.
class ContinueDemo {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String searchMe
= "peter piper picked a " +
"peck of pickled peppers";
int max = searchMe.length();
int numPs = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < max; i++) {
// interested only in p's
if (searchMe.charAt(i) != 'p')
continue;
// process p's
numPs++;
}
System.out.println("Found " +
numPs + " p's in the string.");
}
}
Here is the output of this program:
Found 9 p's in the string.
To see this effect more clearly, try removing the continuestatement and recompiling. When you run the program again, the count will be wrong, saying that it found 35 p's instead of 9.
A labeled continuestatement skips the current iteration of an outer loop marked with the given label. The following example program, ContinueWithLabelDemo, uses nested loops to search for a substring within another string. Two nested loops are required: one to iterate over the substring and one to iterate over the string being searched. The following program, ContinueWithLabelDemo, uses the labeled form of continue to skip an iteration in the outer loop.
class ContinueWithLabelDemo {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String searchMe
= "Look for a substring in me";
String substring = "sub";
boolean foundIt = false;
int max = searchMe.length() -
substring.length();
test:
for (int i = 0; i <= max; i++) {
int n = substring.length();
int j = i;
int k = 0;
while (n-- != 0) {
if (searchMe.charAt(j++)
!= substring.charAt(k++)) {
continue test;
}
}
foundIt = true;
break test;
}
System.out.println(foundIt ?
"Found it" : "Didn't find it");
}
}
Here is the output from this program.
Found it
returnStatementThe last of the branching statements is the returnstatement. The returnstatement exits from the current method, and control flow returns to where the method was invoked. The returnstatement has two forms: one that returns a value, and one that doesn't. To return a value, simply put the value (or an expression that calculates the value) after the returnkeyword.
return ++count;
The data type of the returned value must match the type of the method's declared return value. When a method is declared void, use the form of returnthat doesn't return a value.
return;
The Classes and Objects lesson will cover everything you need to know about writing methods.