Communication can be defined as the process of sharing of thoughts, ideas and information among people to reach a common understanding. The process involves the following:

• A sender
• A Message
• Encoding
• Media
• Decoding
• A Receiver
• Feedback

Actions or situations which obstruct the above cycle of communication are known as Barrier to Effective Communication. These barriers can be of many types:

1. Semantic             2. Psychological
2. Organisational     4. Personal

SEMANTIC BARRIERS

Such barriers arise when there is a problem in the process of encoding and decoding of the ideas into words.

1. BADLY EXPRESSED MESSAGE: It occurs due to the usage of wrong words, certain omissions, confusing sentence structure, etc.
2. WORDS WITH DIFFERENT MEANINGS: One word can have different meanings. It is very important that each worker understands the message in the correct context.
3. FAULTY TRANSLATIONS: Sometimes the ideas which are drafted in one language (English) might have to be translated into another language (Hindi) so that the workers can understand it. This process of translation can cause many errors.
4. UNCLARIFIED ASSUMPTIONS: When a message is communicated, there might be a difference in the assumptions formed by the receiver and the assumptions intended to reach the receiver. Hence, doubts must always be entertained by the sender of the message.
5. TECHNICAL JARGON: Specialists may use the technical language related to their field while explaining processes to the workers. This must be avoided as they might not understand it.
6. BODY LANGUAGE AND GESTURE DECODING: The sender of the message may convey two opposite things if his body language and gestures don’t match what he is saying. Proper care must be taken.

PSYCHOLOGICAL/EMOTIONAL BARRIERS

Such barriers when there is difference in the state of mind of the sender and receiver of the message.

1. LACK OF ATTENTION: Listening with proper attention and focus is a very important part of communication. People who don’t listen properly might not perceive the information correctly.
2. LOSS BY TRANSMISSION AND POOR RETENTION: When a message passes orally among various groups, there is always a loss of information or transmission of an inaccurate message.
3. DISTRUST: Sometimes, the workers don’t trust their superiors. This feeling of distrust doesn’t allow them to perceive the message in its original sense.
4. PREMATURE EVALUATION: Some people have the tendency to judge a situation even before the full message is conveyed. This is called Premature Evaluation.

ORGANISATIONAL BARRIERS

Such barriers arise due to incompatibility with the rules and regulations, organisational structure or authority-responsibility relations.

1. ORGANISATIONAL POLICY: Some companies don’t provide an environment for the free flow of information. Such policies destroy the basic intention of communication.
2. RULES AND REGULATIONS: Certain rules and regulations might prevent or cause delay in transmission of information.
3. STATUS: If the superior or manager is concerned about his position and status he might not allow the workers to express themselves freely.
4. COMPLEXITY IN ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE: In the case of a large company, communication and decision making get delayed due to numerous managerial levels.
5. ORGANISATIONAL FACILITIES: The lack of frequent feedbacks and suggestions can not only restrict information but also hamper the chance of betterment of communication systems.

PERSONAL BARRIERS

Such barriers are mainly related to the personal feelings of both the sender and the receiver of the message.

1. FEAR OF CHALLENGE TO AUTHORITY: Sometimes, a superior may withhold certain information if his authority would be getting affected.
2. LACK OF CONFIDENCE OF SUPERIOR ON HIS SUBORDINATE: If the superior feels that his employees are not competent, he might not ask for their opinions on certain matters.
3. UNWILLINGNESS TO COMMUNICATE: In certain cases, the workers might not communicate with their superior because their interests might get affected.
4. LACK OF PROPER INCENTIVES: Subordinates don’t feel like taking the initiative to communicate if proper motivation is not provided.

The above barriers may make the task of communication challenging but if proper efforts are made by an organisation it can facilitate free flow of ideas.

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“Scientific Management means knowing exactly what you want men to do and seeing that they do it in the best and cheapest way”

• W. Taylor

The Classical approach to Management has been divided into three parts: Bureaucracy, Scientific Management and Administrative Theory. Scientific Management approach was given by Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915), also known as the ‘Father of Scientific Management’. He believed that the shop floor jobs could be done in a more systematic manner to increase productivity. It was sub divided as follows:

1. Principle of Scientific Management
2. Techniques of Scientific Management

THE FOUR PRINCIPLES

1. SCIENCE, NOT RULE OF THUMB: According to this principle, there exists only one technical, efficiency maximising method to do a job. It can be discovered through study and analysis thus eliminating rule of thumb, i.e., hit and trial method. It is very beneficial because it saves time and human resources. Thus, a firm can produce more with fewer resources. As the depth of the scientific analysis increases, the efficiency gets higher.
2. HARMONY, NOT DISCORD: Taylor believed that there must be absolute agreement between the management and the workers. In the long run, both parties could not achieve the organisational goals without each other’s help. There implied a need for MENTAL REVOLUTION, i.e., a change of attitude of the managers and the workers from opposition to cooperation. Managers must be willing to reward their workers satisfactorily and in return the workers must perform their duties with utmost sincerity and discipline.
3. COOPERATION, NOT INDIVIDUALISM: This principle is an extension of Harmony, not discord. It states that team interests must be placed above the individual interests of both, the managers as well as the workers. They should work with complete cooperation. Also, work and responsibility must be divided equally among the managers and workers. Together, they must aim to achieve job specialization.
4. DEVELOPMENT OF EACH AND EVERY PERSON TO HIS/HER GREATEST EFFICIENCY AND PROSPERITY: This principle states that every person working in organisation must be selected wisely and should be given a specific job according to his/her mental & physical capacity. Proper training inculcating the best way to do a job must be given. This would lead to higher productivity directly implying greater earnings for an employee. It would ensure that all employees would work to the fullest of their capacity hence leading to their prosperity.

These principles make the job of a manager easier and help to bridge the gap between supervisors and workers. An organisation will always benefit if it is able implement them.

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Decision- Making is defined as the process of choosing a path for achieving the goals of a company from among various rational alternatives available. Decision Support System (DSS) is basically a system designed to facilitate the same.

It can be defined as an interactive computer system that gathers all the data and applies some analytical tools to it so as to arrive at a semi structured or unstructured decision. It helps the managers in the decision making process, i.e., it might not give the decision itself.

Characteristics of a DSS

• DSS not only responds to information needs but also provides sophisticated analytical tools to the users.
• It is aimed at top and middle level managers.
• It requires mass participation by employees from various departments.
• It is designed specifically for some decisions and not for general use.
• Helps in making interdependent or sequential decisions.
• Also provides intelligence, design, choice, and implementation.
• A variety of decision styles are supported.
• DSS is adaptive over time.

Components of a DSS

The components of DSS can be listed as below:

1. DATA BASE: It is a pre requisite for developing DSS. It is the bank of all information (current as well as historical) acquired from different sources. It also consists of data from various functional areas like marketing, production, financial and human resource. It isn’t designed to create or update information but to use the data to help individuals to make decisions.
2. MODEL BASE: It is a collection of mathematical and analytical models which are used by individuals. Each DSS is designed for a unique purpose and makes varying combinations of models based on this purpose.
3. DSS SOFTWARE: It carries out the creation, storage and retrieval of models from the model base and combines them with the data in the database. It provides a friendly and graphic user interface. Eg- MS Excel, etc.

Types of DSS

DSS can be classified into the following categories:

1. Status Inquiry System: Operational, management level, or middle level management decisions are provided by this system. For example, deciding the daily schedules of jobs to machines, etc.
2. Data Analysis System: It provides comparative analysis and uses formulas or an algorithm. Example: cash flow analysis, inventory analysis, etc.
3. Information Analysis System: This system provides a platform to analyse data and generate the information report. Example: sales analysis, accounts receivable systems, etc.
4. Accounting System: In this system, records of accounting and financial information are kept (final account, accounts receivables, accounts payables, etc.). It keeps track of the overall business.

5. Model Based System: The simulation models or optimization models which help in decision-making are used infrequently which generate general guidelines for management.

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Leadership is defined as the art of influencing and directing people in such a way that they are able to match their vision of accomplishment with the goals of the organisation. Generally, leadership seen in the form of a quality possessed by an individual called the Leader.

After realising the essence of this tool of management, many people gave varying theories as an effort to find out the best leadership style in accordance with the objectives in mind. Managerial Grid was one of the ways of explaining the above.

This grid was first discovered and explained by Dr. Robert R. Blake and Dr. Jane Srygley Mouton in 1964. This grid is composed of alternative combination of leadership styles. It has two dimensions: Concern for production and Concern for people. A leader generally works as a combination of and within the limits of these two dimensions. Leaders are categorised into 81 possible categories out of which 5 have been explained by these two management theorists.

THE FIVE COMBINATIONS

1. Impoverished Management – Low Results/Low People (1,1)

Under this, the manager holds a very low regard for his employees and the performance of the organisation. He doesn’t focus on creating a motivating and healthy working environment for the workers. The leaders are generally indifferent and selfish. This is considered to be an inefficient leadership style.

2. Country Club Management – High People/Low Results (1, 9)

This type of leader is highly concerned about the happiness and well being of his employees. The firm has a friendly and comfortable environment. The leader believes that the workers will put in their best efforts if they are satisfied. But due to lack of direction and control the production suffers.

3. Authority-Compliance Management – High Results/Low People (9, 1)

Also known as Authoritarian, these leaders believe that human elements must not affect the productivity of the firm. All the jobs are well planned and systematically executed. The leader has strict work rules, policies, and procedures, and believes punishment to be the most effective means to motivate employees.

4. Middle-of-the-Road Management – Medium Results/Medium People (5, 5)

This style reflects a balance between both people and production. Leaders expect average output from the employees. Though it seems to be an ideal spot, it has some major drawbacks in the long run. Full exploitation of any aspect is not possible hence giving only half satisfaction to employees and a mediocre performance.

5. Team Leadership – High Production/High People (9, 9)

It is believed to be the best point on the managerial grid. There is an environment of commitment and trust among co-workers. People rely on one another and believe in team efforts. The leader has maximum concern for both production and his employees. He takes the opinions of his team into consideration and comes to a common solution.

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THIS IS HOW IT WAS DISCOVERED

Once upon a time a family was enjoying a sunny holiday at home. Suddenly one of the family members suggested at random that all of them should go to Abilene which was rather far off. One of them said that the idea was good trying to be polite and encouraging. The others followed and finally all of them were on their way to the ‘amazing trip’. When they reached the restaurant, the food wasn’t good at all. All the shops were closed. There was nothing to do. All of them returned back tired and frustrated only to discover that neither of them wanted to go in the first place.

THE PARADOX

It is a phenomenon according to which the individuals in an organization take irrational or wrong decisions because they think that that is what the whole group wants. They put team interests above their own interests. The paradox was explained by Jerry B Harvey, professor of Management Science, in his book The Abilene Paradox and Other Meditations on Management (1988).

It represents the failure faced by a firm because it was unable to manage agreement rather than conflict. Generally, companies take decisions as opposed to the information preset with them which creates an even bigger mess.

SOLUTIONS

The following points must be kept in mind while dealing with such a situation:

1. Rational thinking must be awarded.
2. Discussion must be encouraged rather than a simple yes or no.
3. If some people are silent, it should not be mistaken for consent. Prompt them to talk.
4. Always take a third person perspective. E.g.: Make sure that someone from another dept. is present in the meeting.
5. Have some people who oppose the proposal and others who support it.

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Have you ever noticed that majority college students (at least in my course) start studying 20-30 days before the semester exams rather than studying for the whole semester? Or the fact that before being banned, Maggie held a 90% share in the Indian noodle market. Now, think of these situations from a more generalized perspective. Yes, the concept is as interesting as the name itself.

The 80-20 Rule, also known as Pareto’s Law, The Principle of Least Effort or The Principle of the Vital Few, states that 80% of the output is obtained from 20% of the input. This proportion may not be exact in every situation but the overall deviation would generally remain close to the 80:20 ratio.

This principle was discovered and explained mathematically by Vilfredo Pareto, an Italian economist and sociologist during a study of unequal wealth distribution in Italy. In the 1940s, Dr. Joseph M. Juran, attributed the 80/20 Rule to Pareto and called it Pareto’s Principle.

It is generally applied in the fields of career change/business start ups, planning, decision making, selling, marketing, project management, leadership, change management and personal change.

The main advantage of this rule is that organizations have now understood that the easiest way to maximize their profits is by focusing their attention on 20% of the most necessary tasks/products/services, etc. It leads to the conservation of resources, efforts and time. But at the same time it is important that managers apply this law wisely and with precaution. In a situation where focusing 80% attention on the best 20% would lead to less benefit as compared to focusing the same attention on the less productive 80% so that it leads to greater profits, the latter must be preferred.

Therefore, I would end by saying that Management is a situation oriented science and the judicious use of such laws can create a better world.

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Motivation, one of the most powerful tools of management, can be defined as something that creates initiative among people. If the right needs of the employees are targeted at the right time an organisation can reach a completely different level of success. One of the most popular theories of motivation includes Ouchi’s Z Theory.

Theory Z suggests that a trusting and caring relationship between both, the leaders and the followers and among the employees is essential. People feel motivated because they have a sense of mutual trust. Also, providing a job for life increases their sense of loyalty towards the company as it encourages the well-being of the employees.

ASSUMPTIONS

Some of the assumptions about the workers include:

• Workers have a tendency to establish happy and intimate working relationships with their supervisors and with, as well as their co-workers.
• Deep inside all workers need to be supported by the company. They value and long for a trustworthy and unified working environment. Such workers feel a moral obligation to stay committed to their work & have a sense of order and discipline.
• Workers are expected to do their jobs with full dedication as long as the management is trusted to support them and ensure their well-being.

CHARACTERISTICS

An organization following Theory Z possesses the following characteristics:

• A Strong Company Philosophy and Culture: The Company tends to possess a common philosophy and culture which is accepted and practiced by all employees. They believe in the organization and put in their best efforts.
• Long-Term Staff Development and Employment: The organization and management makes sure that proper exposure is given to the employees in order to ensure their overall development. They get promoted from time to time which also builds a sense of loyalty in them.
• Consensus in Decisions: Employees take proper initiative and participate more actively in the decision making process. This also increases their sense of belonging in the company.
• Generalist Employees: As the employees are active participants in taking decisions related to almost all aspects of the firm, they become generalists. However, they continue to specialize in their own fields too.
• Concern for the Happiness and Well-Being of Workers: The organization understands the essence of having strong bonds with the workers. They initiate various programs to take care of the well being of the employees as well as their families.
• Informal Control with Formalized Measures: The workers are given full freedom to act as they see fit and decide for themselves. But they are always accountable for the work that they do and their performance.
• Individual Responsibility: The organisation very well understands and awards the work of an individual employee. He/she is however expected to act in the interest of the team as a whole.

To conclude, this theory specifically focuses on creating stronger human bonds in an organisation. It helps to breed an environment fit for everyone so that the overall productivity increases.

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Frederick Winslow Taylor, also known as the “Father of Scientific Management”, believed that certain scientific techniques could increase the productivity at the shop-door level. After conducting various experiments, he came up with the Techniques of Scientific Management. One of those techniques was Functional Foremanship.

Taylor thought that one supervisor could not possess all the qualities required to lead the workers. Hence, he suggested this technique under which one worker would be supervised by eight specialist foremen. He separated planning of work from execution of work. The eight foremen are listed below:

PLANNING INCHARGE

1. ROUTE CLERK: His duty is to draft a chronological order of doing various tasks in the factory to achieve the required targets efficiently and effectively. His orders must be followed strictly by all the workers.
2. INSTRUCTION CARD CLERK: His work is to formulate instructions for the workers of the factory. The work must be performed within the limits of such instructions.
3. TIME AND COST CLERK: He has to prepare a realistic and achievable timetable for doing all the work at the shop floor level. He must also regularly maintain records of the cost of the work done.
4. DISCIPLINARIAN: His job is to see that all the rules are being enforced and followed by the workers and if not, he has the authority to take the required action. He is supposed to maintain discipline among workers too.

PRODUCTION INCHARGE

1. GANG BOSS: He is supposed to ensure that all the tools and equipments are assemble and arranged in the plant. He must also tell the workers how to operate the machinery efficiently.
2. SPEED BOSS: His job is to ensure that all the work targets are achieved, i.e., the work is done on time. He must make sure that the workers are doing their tasks at the right speed.
3. REPAIR BOSS: He must take care that each worker keeps his machines and tools in the proper working condition. It ensures that the machines are clean and rust free.
4. INSPECTORS: His job is to make sure that the quality of the work done in the factory is in accordance with the particular standard set.

To conclude, all the above officers have an essential duty. They help in increasing the overall productivity of the organisation, reducing costs and saving time.

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